This Project Demonstrating Excellence is dedicated to the late Dennis H. French for his remarkable insights into "friction" and "collective stress" which this learner has incorporated into his writing, and to Hal Goldstein the first person to support this dream. This learner's sincere gratitude is expressed to his wife, Lee Leffler, Wing Commander Ravi Badhwar, (Ret.) Major Barry Cave, USA (Ret.), Paul Frank, Frank Pinto, Robert LeShay, Dennis D. Dey and to following members and consultants to the Consciousness-Based Defense doctoral committee:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT DEMONSTRATING EXCELLENCE

APPENDIX A: MAHARISHI EFFECT PAPERS AND PRESENTATIONS

APPENDIX B: BIOGRAPHICAL DATA FOR STRESS STUDY

APPENDIX C: OTHER DOCUMENTATION

ABSTRACT

Name: Leffler, David Robert

Title: A Vedic Approach to Military Defense: Reducing Collective Stress Through the Field Effects of Consciousness

Descriptor: Maharishi Effect, consciousness, collective stress, Maharishi Supreme Military Science, Alexithymia, stress, Transcendental Meditation, Peace studies, Defense studies, Peacekeeping, Peacemaking

Total security for any country can not be ensured, at least not through the current defense paradigm, due to the level of sophistication of today's weapons. Thus, defense planners are continually striving to find ways to deal with uncertainty (Crocker, Hampson, Aall, 1996; Davis, 1994; Cronin, 1993; The United States Marine Corps, 1994). However, if history is a predictor of the future, it will be difficult to maintain superiority because any new technologies developed in one country are eventually obtained by its adversary. The proliferation of new weapons technologies is likely to increase the complexity of future conflicts and further increase uncertainty. Therefore, it is probable that the old paradigm of using weapons of force will not eliminate uncertainty or wars.

A growing body of research conducted on the Transcendental Meditation ® (TM®) and TM-Sidhi ® programs, part of the practical component of a new defense paradigm called "Maharishi Supreme Military Science^SM ," indicates there is a possibility that insecurity and uncertainty can be eliminated without the use of weapons (Kleinschnitz, 1997, Brown, 1996). Theoretically, during collective practice of this human resource technology, practitioners enliven a field of "pure consciousness" -- possibly the same field as the unified field of natural law proposed by physicists (Hagelin, 1987; 1989; Hameroff & Penrose, 1996; Kleinschnitz, 1997). Regular daily experience of this field of pure consciousness during meditation is held to be responsible for the reductions of individual and collective stress observed in numerous studies. The build-up of collective societal stress, postulated to be the root cause of adversarial relationships ultimately leading to conflict and war, is prevented. Maharishi Supreme Military Science asserted (Maharishi, 1996) and research demonstrated (see Appendix A: 28, 29, 30) that nations with reduced collective or societal stress would be more likely to befriend former enemies, and thus to become "invincible" in the sense that no country would elect to attack its friends. In such a situation, adversarial relationships would no longer exist, and defense planners would be more certain of the stability of international relationships (Maharishi, 1996).

A technology capable of eliminating the insecurities and uncertainties of adversarial relationships could have a major impact by achieving the ultimate goal of defense planning -- total security. The goal of this Project Demonstrating Excellence for this learner's Ph.D. program in Consciousness-Based Military Defense has been to contribute further to the testing and elucidation of the wide-ranging possibilities of this proposed peace-creating technology. It is hoped that this small contribution will aid in the acceptance and application of this technology by militaries everywhere. If effectiveness of the technology is upheld by further research, perhaps conducted by the military itself, the end result of applying Maharishi's consciousness-based technology could well be the reduction of destructive defense strategies and the creation of a safer world. Thus, the military's current adversarial approach, which has been born out of fear and has been a factor in the cause of war, could change to Maharishi's consciousness-based approach, which could reduce fear and become a factor towards averting war.

1. Age of Enlightenment -- The ultimate goal of Maharishi Supreme Military Science is to create this age where "[n]ot only will no one harm anyone, but everyone will be a joy to everyone else in the most spontaneous manner, and every nation will be a joy to every other nation" (Maharishi, 1986a, p. 49).

2. Collective Consciousness -- A society's collective consciousness is proposed to be the sum of the influences created by its individual members. This collective consciousness, in turn, affects the thoughts and feelings of those same individuals.

3. Creative Intelligence -- the impulses or laws of nature responsible for the whole manifest universe.

4. Higher States of Consciousness -- defined by Hagelin (1987, p. 79) as follows:

6. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi -- ("Maha" means great, "rishi" means seer or teacher, "Mahesh" means destroyer of ignorance, "Yogi" means one who has obtained "yoga" or union or enlightenment.) Maharishi is a title bestowed upon many masters of the Vedic tradition. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi is the name given to the founder of the Transcendental Meditation program by his teacher.

7. Maharishi Effect -- defined in the book The Maharishi Effect (1990, p. 13) as follows:

9. Object-referral -- attending only to the observed (or known) rather than considering the unified experience of observer (knower), process of observation (or knowing) and the observed (the known) in which consciousness is awake to its full unbounded nature as the Self, as in "self-referral consciousness."

10. Natural law -- this Project Demonstrating Excellence will extend the usual meaning of this concept, namely that natural law is the body of nature's regulating intelligence that creates, maintains and preserves all levels of life -- individual, family, national, global and cosmic. The extension comes in a concept that when life is lived in accord with natural law, then it is "supported by nature." On the other hand, if natural law is "violated", then, "stress" is generated. This stress is thought to cause the strained trends and tendencies in the individual and the environment which ultimately erupt as violence, terrorism, conflict, and other forms of negativity.

11. Pure awareness -- awareness of awareness itself, the awareness of the knower knows the awareness of one's self through the process of awareness. This is the most pure level of knowingness.

12. Pure knowledge -- Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1987) defined pure knowledge as "the state of awareness in which consciousness knows itself alone, when awareness is completely self-referral, when awareness has nothing other than itself in its structure." (p. 1)

13. Samhita -- refers to the state of awareness in which there is a unitary or wholeness of relationship between the observer, the process of observation and the observed (see "pure knowledge").

14. Science of Creative Inteligence® (SCI) -- the science of consciousness founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi which links objective (e.g., modern science) and subjective approaches to knowledge.

15. Self-interacting dynamics -- the proposed all-powerful, immortal, infinite dynamism found at the unmanifest basis of creation (the unified field), when consciousness knows itself.

16. Self-referral -- the process by which pure consciousness, by virtue of being "conscious," knows itself and becomes awake within its own nature, simultaneously being observer (knower), process of observation (process of knowing) and observed (the known).

17. Serotonin -- the chemical, 5-hydroxytryptamine, [C10H12ON2], derived from L-tryptophan, found in nerve and blood tissue, used to cause contractions of smooth muscles such as those existing in the intestine and the lining of the blood vessels. Serotonin has been identified as an important neurotransmitter in the brain and other parts of the body. Low levels of serotonin availability are believed to lead to aggression, mental disorders and substance abuse.

18. Transcendental Meditation (TM) program -- a natural, effortless and simple procedure which allows the mind to settle down through progressively finer states of its own activity to experience transcendental consciousness or a deep state of restful alertness. The TM technique originates from the Vedic tradition. More than four million people worldwide have learned the TM technique. The goal of practicing the TM program is not to become a passive individual but to eliminate stress and its performance-limiting consequences, in part through providing a unique, deep state of rest. (Rest is held to be the basis for more successful, dynamic activity.) This leads to greater success, achievement and fulfillment.

19. TM-Sidhi program -- ("sidhi" means perfection) The TM-Sidhi program is held to develop the ability to think and act from the least excited state of consciousness, the proposed unified field of all the laws of nature. The goal of this practice is the development of "sidhis," or supernormal abilities, which are thought to be acquired from perfection of mind-body coordination, held in the long Vedic tradition to arise from the development of higher states of consciousness.

20. Transcendental consciousness -- a proposed fourth state of consciousness, or pure awareness, experienced during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique, with different parameters from waking, dreaming and sleeping states of consciousness. During the experience of transcendental consciousness, the individual experiences profound rest, removing deeply rooted effects of stress. This process is thought to rejuvenate and revitalize the entire nervous system.

21. Undifferentiated intelligence -- another way of describing pure awareness or pure intelligence, the state where consciousness is open only to itself.

22. Unified field -- ultimate level of super-unification of all the fundamental forces of nature, proposed by some theoretical physicists to be at the basis of creation, where all the known forces of nature (the weak force, the strong force, the electromagnetic force, and gravitation) are united. All matter and space are proposed to emerge from the unified field.

23. Unified field of consciousness -- the abstract, dynamic, least excited, self-sufficient source of all mental processes, thought to be contacted and enlivened during the practice of the TM technique. Maharishi and theoretical physicists propose that it is one and the same with the unified field of physics defined above.

24. Veda -- (knowledge) Maharishi Mahesh Yogi defines Veda as "pure knowledge and the infinite organizing power that is inherent in the structure of pure knowledge." (Maharishi, 1987, p. 1)

25. Vedic Science -- the science of Veda, which describes the sequential mechanics through which the three-in-one structure of the unified field (knower, known, process of knowing) stimulates the infinite range and diversity of natural law displayed in the universe.

Maharishi also calls his system of defense "supreme" because it not only considers the field of the observed (the known or perceived reality), as in conventional military science, but also develops the full potential of warriors as observers (knowers) as well as their process of observation (process of knowing), which is thought to link the warriors as observers to the observed world. In order to fully incorporate these three areas, Maharishi Supreme Military Science not only recognizes the objective technology of modern science, but also expounds a proposed subjective, consciousness-based scientific technology as well.

Maharishi Supreme Military Science focuses on the inner, most fundamental level of the individual's own awareness, the experience of a proposed fourth state consciousness. Extensive scientific research (to be discussed later) indicates this state of awareness is a field of "pure consciousness" (see "Key Concepts of Maharishi Supreme Military Science"). The research also shows that the unique state of pure consciousness gained from the implementation of Maharishi Supreme Military Science is not qualified as an object-referral or individual experience, but is consciousness in its undifferentiated state. Individuals experiencing pure consciousness reported it to be devoid of any individualizing influence or external objects of experience (Alexander, et al., 1990). For this reason, at a later stage of development, they described the experience as just themselves (the observers) becoming one with the observed. The evidence (that will be presented) is strong that the experience of this proposed state of consciousness can be gained repeatedly through the practice of a simple, natural mental technique.

The ancient Vedic tradition from which Maharishi Supreme Military Science was drawn postulated that the individual's own pure awareness was intimately connected with the fundamental nature of the environment as a whole. The individual's "pure awareness" was viewed as a field of consciousness which some physicists feel was the same as the proposed unified field in physics (Hagelin, 1987; 1989; Hameroff & Penrose, 1996; Kleinschnitz, 1997).

From their research in high-energy particle physics, a number of physicists have postulated the existence of a single unified field of all the laws of nature, an unmanifest field of pure intelligence in nature. The unified field was unmanifest and unbounded in the sense that it precedes the formation of time and space (Schwartzschild, 1985; Waldrop, 1985). The unified field was proposed to embody the property of complete self-interaction or self-referral. Through its own self-interacting dynamics it arouses all laws of nature and all manifest phenomena.

Maharishi (1986a) and physicists like John Hagelin (1987) postulated that the proposed unified field of physics and the proposed field of pure consciousness were one and the same. They held that this ultimate level of super-unification of all the fundamental forces of nature was a field of all possibilities, (i.e., all possible expressions of this field were hypothesized to be represented there much as the branches, leaves and fruit of a tree were represented in its seed). Obviously, if this is proved to be true, a technology based on this level would dramatically revolutionize the tactics and strategies of military science, as well as radically change the world view. It is hoped that this Project Demonstrating Excellence, with its emphasis in Maharishi Supreme Military Science, will inspire others to explore some of these possibilities by becoming pioneering proponents of this proposed new paradigm of absolute defense.

1. The History and Basis of Maharishi Supreme Military Science

Both the Transcendental Meditation program and the more advanced TM-Sidhi program, the practical components of Maharishi Supreme Military Science, were derived by Maharishi from the ancient Vedic tradition. The Vedic tradition was thought to be the oldest recorded tradition of knowledge in the world (Frawley, 1991). Maharishi Supreme Military Science has its basis in the samhita of the Veda. The founders of the Vedic tradition referred to the samhita as a simple, unified state of awareness as "pure consciousness." Pure consciousness was an undifferentiated, self-interacting or self-referral (referring back to itself) state of consciousness. It was completely different from waking, dreaming or sleeping states of consciousness because in the state of pure consciousness, consciousness was awake only to itself. Like waking, dreaming, and sleeping pure consciousness had its own physiological and psychological character (Farrow, 1975; Travis & Wallace, 1997). Unlike the other states of consciousness, pure consciousness knew its own nature to be simple, unified and pure (Chandler, 1987, p. 8-9).

According to Vedic tradition, this state of pure consciousness, samhita, ultimately was nothing but these self-referral dynamics. Because consciousness structures all properties of knowledge by its underlying self-interacting dynamics of knowing itself, the samhita was the most important aspect of Veda to understand. Samhita was the subjective state marked by the togetherness of three-in-one: it was when rishi (the knower or observer), devata (the process of knowing or the process of observation), and chhandas (the known or observed) were known to be one and the same. That is, the intellect, while remaining one wholeness, conceived these three values. Vedic tradition also asserted that this process of consciousness knowing itself (the self-interacting dynamics of consciousness) stirred all the diversity and hence all activity found in nature. Therefore, Vedic teachings held that the basis of all knowledge (including military art and science) was found in the full potential of the knower, the process of knowing, and the known located in the eternal silence of the samhita -- the togetherness of three-in-one. The Vedic point of view held that through several varied transformations and interactions of these (the three intellectually-conceived values) all of creation sequentially emerged (Maharishi, 1985, p. 68). Maharishi's interpretation of this theoretical framework of the samhita of the Veda, along with its component of ancient military art and science (Dhanur-Veda ), awakens the proposed unified field -- or consciousness-based-system of defense which is referred to here as Maharishi Supreme Military Science. The main concept of collective consciousness underlying Maharishi Supreme Military Science is discussed in the Vedic literature. The next two sections will explain the concept and present some descriptions taken from the Vedic literature.

2. Concept of Collective Consciousness

To understand the concept of collective consciousness, a military example may be useful. Military units such as battalions, divisions, squadrons, wings, fleets, battlegroups, etc. are social structures. Each unit exhibits its own varying degree of orderliness and harmony which produces its own collective spirit or morale. Throughout history high morale has been a powerful strategic asset. This was especially true concerning the society the military protected. For example, contrast the morale of the U.S.A. during World War II with the lack of it during the Vietnam conflict. Similarly, Maharishi's Absolute Theory of Defense (Maharishi, 1996) viewed society's "morale" as an aspect or manifestation of collective consciousness, a potential strategic asset. The collective consciousness of society was proposed to be the sum of the influences created by its individual members. This collective consciousness, in turn, affected the thoughts and feelings of those same individuals.

3. Examples of Collective Consciousness in Vedic Literature

Maharishi often quoted two verses from the Vedic tradition when discussing use of the Maharishi Effect to create the Vedic ideal of a prevention-oriented defense:

The Ramayana of Valmiki (5000 B.C./1957) described the ancient city of Ayodhya. On one level this city relied on traditional defense systems. For instance, "It was enclosed by strong fortifications and a deep moat, which no enemy, by any expedient whatsoever, could penetrate" (p. 18). Also, "Ayodhya abounded in warriors undefeated in battle, fearless and skilled in the use of arms, resembling lions guarding their mountain caves" (p. 20). However, an enlightened interpretation of preventive defense could be argued from the descriptions of the righteous stress-free lifestyle of the inhabitants of Ayodhya. Perhaps Ayodhya's first line of defense was created by the purity of the inhabitants' collective consciousness obtained through the Maharishi Effect, "...the brilliance of which" according to Valmiki, "spread for four miles, [Ayodhya] was worthy of its name" ["The City none can challenge in warfare"] (p. 21).

4. Stress in Collective Consciousness Starts Wars

Maharishi's Absolute Theory of Defense (Maharishi, 1996) propounded the theory that the outbreak of collective violence or warfare was due to the build-up of stress and tension in society's collective consciousness. If the collective consciousness was full of tension and fear, then disorder was more liable to erupt than if the prevailing mood was one of contentment. Social injustice and unfavorable economic conditions thrived in, as well as contributed to, chaotic environments. Unresolved religious, territorial, political, and cultural differences further contributed to unrest. Thus, the frustrated and dissatisfied population of any country contributed to its instability. The build up of this sort of tension in the nation became dangerous to its sovereignty, producing an unstable government that was more prone to war.

A relentless series of tensions and crises lead to the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife triggering World War I. Social unrest and political instability also contributed to the coming to power of Adolf Hitler. Disorder can take the form of civil strife or of conflict with neighboring countries. If a war between nations, a civil war, or even a coup d'état occurs, the possibilities of escalation may increase because, frequently, other groups or nations are tempted to take advantage of the situation. For instance, at the outset of World War II Italy invaded Ethiopia. After war had broken out in Europe, Japan sought to gain new footholds in other territories besides China during World War II. These are among many historical examples of collective stress driving social disorder and spilling out into other nations and creating the reign of terror called war.

5. Is "Friction in War" Similar to "Stress in Collective Consciousness?"

The founder of modern military art and science, Carl von Clausewitz analyzed the different facets of uncertainty in war. In his book, On War, Clausewitz (1832/1989) named the agent of uncertainty "friction." Clausewitz elaborated on friction and its ramifications in many ways, such as the following:

Clausewitz and later strategists (e.g., J.F. Fuller) have accepted friction as an unavoidable fact of life. However, because unified field theories were not available until the 20th Century, one can infer that this conclusion was based on applying the "classical" or Newtonian physics-based, reductionist, scientific analysis to the conduct of war. Clausewitz (1832/1989) expressed in his writing the hope that eventually his inexact approach, which he referred to as "certain ideas and convictions, ...present[ed] in compressed form, like some nuggets of pure metal...," would be replaced by a more complete scientific approach. This approach was characterized by Clausewitz as "a single whole, cast of solid metal, free from all impurity" (p. 62). Thus, his insights over 150 years ago may have hinted at the proposed consciousness-based unified field theory discussed below.

These insights could be important today because, in theory, if collective societal stress is high, it is difficult for defense planners to eliminate the uncertainty that can lead to war. If collective stress level is high, it could be argued that friction is high as well. For this reason, this Project Demonstrating Excellence attempted to provide a more exact and holistic approach to defense planning through the creation of a new prevention-oriented defense paradigm that could eliminate friction. Current defense strategies rely mainly on established material sciences such as ballistics, chemistry, and the electronic and nuclear levels of physics. These levels do not involve the most fundamental understanding of nature.

In the reverse direction, when heat is removed from a physical system, temperature lowers, and entropy or disorder decreases. At low enough temperatures, friction or resistance to motion can disappear altogether, e.g., an electrical conductor becoming a "superconductor" with no electrical resistance, or a liquid (liquid helium) becoming a superfluid with zero viscosity. In such highly ordered systems, quantum mechanical properties are observed on a macroscopic level, and the system experiences what might be called frictionless flow.

Furthermore, unified field theories introduce the view that, at the basis of creation, all matter fields and all the known fundamental forces of nature (the weak force, the strong force, the electromagnetic force, and gravitation) are integrated (Hagelin, 1987, 1989; Hameroff & Penrose, 1996). If the proposed unified field of physics and the unified field of consciousness reportedly experienced through Maharishi Supreme Military Science technology are one and the same, then it is hypothesized that only the frictionless flow of pure consciousness exists at this level. Thus, in theory, a unified field-based system of defense could allow defense planners to exercise command over friction.

In the past there was no universal, systematic, and scientifically validated human resource technology from which to consistently operate at, or investigate this level. Perhaps this is why for hundreds of years the tactics and strategies of conventional military art and science have failed to eliminate or understand friction found in battle. Therefore, and for much the same reasons, the "stress" or source of "friction" found in the collective consciousness of the civilian population has not been eliminated either. For these reasons, the Project Demonstrating Excellence expands Carl von Clausewitz's concept of "friction" and contrasts it with Maharishi's theory of stress in collective consciousness, or collective stress.

One objection that traditional military scholars might have to identifying friction and stress in collective consciousness might be that, for von Clausewitz, friction applied to war, not to peacetime. Today, however, conflict continues, especially by indirect means such as terrorism, even when war has not been declared. This leads, as some observers have noted, to the turning on its head of Clausewitz's dictum that war is the extension of politics: politics (and economics) has become the extension of war. The increase in terrorist acts and other increasingly sophisticated indirect strategies of conflict have thus made friction (or stress) an immediate concern at all times. It is not only a personal concern localized in time and space, it is also a military matter which applies equally to peace and to war.

This Project Demonstrating Excellence elucidates the principle that as it is with the individual, so it is with the body public. Trends of society reflect the collective consciousness of all the individuals in society. Wars are the expression of accumulated stress in collective consciousness. This may be why Carl von Clausewitz could observe that the intensity of war corresponds to the intensity of political conflicts between the belligerent nations: "If war is part of policy, policy will determine its character. As policy becomes more ambitious and vigorous, so will war..." (Clausewitz, 1832/1989, p. 606).

Over forty studies (many of which will be discussed in Chapter II) have demonstrated the capability of Maharishi Supreme Military Science as a new human resource technology to reduce collective stress of whole societies (for review see Kleinschnitz, 1997). Based on this research, the theoretical aspect of the Project Demonstrating Excellence will examine evidence for and against the following proposals first put forward by the late D. H. French (personal communication, September 28, 1987):

1. Excess Stress in Military Personnel Limits Performance

Conventional military training involves physical conditioning to improve performance. However, it does not train the soldiers to develop their full mental and physical potential. Instead of striving to increase human performance, militaries devote their attention largely to increasing the destructive power, accuracy, and delivery speed of weaponry. This oversight presents today's soldiers with extra challenges (Heckler, 1990, October; Heckler, 1992).

High-technology weaponry demands that soldiers perform at their optimum. All ranks must be in top mental as well as physical condition, because victory depends on taking the right action with appropriate speed and accuracy (Creveld, 1991). Their minds need to remain strong and clear even when duty requires strenuous and protracted hours. Frequently, decisions must be made instantly, on an intuitive level. If these decisions and actions are incorrect, the consequences can be tragic, both in combat and in non-combat operations (The United States Marine Corps, 1994). For all these reasons, today's military personnel are pushing the limits of human performance (Szafranski, 1994, November).

The challenge to maintain broad comprehension, perfect mind-body coordination, and lively intelligence under difficult circumstances has increased for modern military professionals. Stress is likely to be the most significant underlying factor. There are many reasons why stress in the military may be increasing. For instance, "[t]he nature of warfare is changing. Lengthy military commitments designed to win conflicts are being replaced by short-term deployments intended to prevent them" (Adelsberger, 1996, May 27). The military, particularly in the United States, has been called upon to maintain effectiveness despite cutbacks (Auster, 1994, July 25). Therefore, it will be necessary in such cases for already-stressed, overworked personnel to continue to do more with less (Hudson & Matthews, 1994, August 15; Bird, 1997, July 21). In 1996, the U.S. Army deployed 35,000 troops from their home stations to 70 countries. Army officials told Congress that "frequent deployments and the increased pace of operations may dissuade good soldiers from reenlisting" (G-2, 1997, p. 3). The demand for back-to-back deployments and station tenures leads to increased marital discord and divorce, and the use of tobacco, alcohol and drugs. Such manifestations of stress reduce the fitness, effectiveness and operational readiness of individuals.

Increased stress in the military may take its toll in other ways. For instance, a U.S. Army survey suggested that spousal abuse is occurring in one of every three Army families each year -- double the civilian rate (Thompson, 1994, May 23). The Pentagon's Readiness Task Force admits that stress is taking a heavy toll on service members and has contributed to a jump in suicides in the military (Hudson & Matthews, 1994, August 15). Obviously, reducing or even eliminating stress and the associated performance-limiting behaviors contributes to greater individual performance and to successful military campaigns. Both hardened combat veterans and "green" troops realize that if they could be free from stress and strain they would perform more dynamically.

2. Military Might Incites Fear in Friends as well as Foes

"Peace through strength" has been a popular deterrent military strategy. Unfortunately, a strong military projects a threatening image, even when deployed for humanitarian missions. This was evident during the recent Somalia operation, in which the military was invited in as a friendly force to restore order. Later, the outside military forces were reviled and persecuted by many civilians who had earlier pleaded for their help in delivering and safeguarding their lives, food, and supplies (Lorenz, 1993; McMullen & Norton, 1993; Taw & Hoffman, 1994).

3. No Nation is Totally Protected

The survival and progress of a nation depend on the effectiveness of its national defense. However, it is clear today that even with the world's best military equipment and preparedness, the current defense paradigm is unable to totally protect any nation. Regardless of military strength, no nation today enjoys total freedom from the fear of politically motivated violence. Every nation is influenced by fighting in the family of nations. Even if it is not directly a participant in hostilities, it is influenced by international fear and hatred. This leads to military budget increases, stockpiling of armaments, and arousal of suspicions. In theory, since World War II, deterrence or fear-based strategies have been used to protect and promote peace. Apparently, this strategy has not worked. According to figures produced by the Hamburg University Research Unit on Wars, Armament, and Development (AKUF), over 186 wars have occurred since 1945 (cited in Hauchler & Kennedy, 1994, p. 179). In 1994 there were 31 major armed conflicts in 27 locations around the world (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 1995). The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (1996) also claims that there were 30 major armed conflicts in 1995. However, that year the conservative oriented U.S. National Defense Council Foundation counted a record 71 conflicts occurred world-wide (Associated Press, 1996, January 3). In 1996, 27 major armed conflicts occurred world-wide (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 1997). Although most of these conflicts were civil wars or ethnic hostilities, thousands of lives have been lost.

The post-USSR world has proven to be a more dangerous place than one might have imagined. There are no well-defined opponents. A recent subheading to an editorial in International Defense Review reads, "A hard core of terrorists and civil warriors is proving resistant to traditional means of deterrences" (Sauerwein, 1993, p. 183). The recent wave of terrorism and civil war reflects the shift of conflict and violence to a level where it is difficult to hold any person, group or nation accountable. Former U.S. Secretary of Defense William Perry recently pointed out that a dictator with weapons of mass destruction could threaten to launch missiles loaded with nerve gas or anthrax bacteria against a neighboring country if the country allowed in U.S. troops, and that such a twist on deterrence would undercut the whole strategy of rushing in to cool regional conflicts before they get out of hand (Wilson, 1995, March 20).

Strategies of deterrence or space-based missile defense systems can not protect against the growing threat of nuclear terrorism. Although the CIA (cited in "Washington," 1996) and a General Accounting Office Report (cited in Martel, 1997, August 25) claim that extremist groups have not yet obtained nuclear materials, at least 46 nuclear weapons are thought to be missing from the former Soviet arsenal (G-2, 1994a) and it is reported that nuclear weapons are for sale on the black market (G-2, 1994b; Eads, 1997, April). Very destructive nuclear weapons can easily be delivered by a single terrorist, in an artillery shell, a small boat, truck, plane, etc. (Reed, 1993, April 26). The recent Tokyo subway attack and the bombings of the World Trade Center and the Oklahoma City Federal Building demonstrate that even the most affluent and civilized countries are susceptible to attacks by terrorists or rogue elements with concealed weapons. Current military strategies are not well designed for the possibility of even one weapon of mass destruction winding up in the hands of rogue elements such as terrorists.

The next chapter will describe the research on a proposed underlying cause of these threats-stress.

Soderberg (1967) contended that stress was "the most grandly imprecise term in the dictionary of science." One could argue that this confusion still exists today. Although stress is a pervasive part of life, it is difficult to define because it is a multidimensional phenomenon. A definition of stress must account for the physical, social, psychological and philosophical domains (Girdano, Everly & Dusek, 1990, p. 1). Probably due to the enormity of this task, Eliot (1988) concluded that "[w]e now know the consequences of 'stress' more precisely than we know the definition of it" (p. 1). This may be why he proposed the following circular definition: "Stress may be viewed as the body's response to any real or imagined events perceived as requiring some adaptive response and/or producing strain" (p. 1).

Such a flexible definition appeared to be necessary because according to Lazarus and Folkman (1984) negative events do not necessarily induce psychological distress. It is only when imposed demands are thought to exceed one's ability to cope that distress arises. "Stress is not always harmful. It is the individual's reaction to stress that determines the outcome, i.e., whether the individual will adapt or becomes maladaptive" (Smith, 1992, p. 3138). Considering one's reaction to stress is an important concept in the analysis of the data that will be presented later in this Project Demonstrating Excellence.

It could be argued that the nineteenth-century physiologist Bernard first recognized, in the phenomenon of homeostasis, the basis for a comprehensive understanding of human stress. "It is the fixity of the milieu interieur" [the stability of the internal environment], he wrote, "which is the condition of free and independent life" (Bernard, 1879). However, Cannon first coined the term "homeostasis" for Bernard's concept, defining it as "the coordinated physiologic processes which maintain most of the steady states in the organism" (Cannon, 1939). Cannon discovered the presence of specific mechanisms for protection against agents that disturb the homeostasis of body temperature, blood pH, levels of sugar, protein, fat, and calcium in the blood. It was attempts like this to understand the human body's health which first attracted stress researcher pioneer Hans Selye to investigate the phenomenon of stress.

At first, Selye described stress as a "stereotyped response to any exacting task" or the "syndrome of just being sick" (Selye, 1986). In 1935, he defined the condition as "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether it is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions" (Selye, 1978). This definition created a framework which other researchers later built on to make up for its shortcomings. For instance, Selye's concept that an organism only has a finite amount of adaptation energy contributed to Holroyd and Lazarus' (1986) definition of psychological stress. They added the concepts of limited resources with which to respond to acute demands.

Together Selye, Holroyd and Lazarus all viewed stress as the body's response to an "environmental demand" or an environmental change. This demand or change disrupts the body's homeostasis. This disruption is viewed as a threat to health because the body must use energy or other resources, or both to regain homeostasis (Girdano, Everly & Dusek, 1990). The process of the body using energy to regain homeostasis was called general adaptation or later simply adaptation by Selye (1936). Like Selye, Holroyd and Lazarus proposed that "adaptive energy" was limited. There was only so much that could be used to restore homeostasis after being subjected to stressful activity (Selye, 1936; Girdano, Everly & Dusek, 1990.

Events or conditions that trigger stress reactions are called "stressors." This section will list and describe the stressors discussed primarily in the book Controlling Stress and Tension: A Holistic Approach by Girdano, Everly and Dusek (1990). The authors divide the source of stressors into three areas: psychosocial (lifestyle), bioecological and personality.

The stressors in the psychosocial domain are adaptation, overload, frustration and deprivation. Adaptation, the process of achieving homeostasis, is stressful because it requires energy and thus becomes a drag on health. Overload is a common stressor due to such things as overcrowding, the mushrooming volume of information available due to multimedia, discrimination, pressures for high achievement, two-worker families, etc. Frustration is caused by inhibition, and the more complex a society the more its members must inhibit their behavior. Thus society's increasing complexity further aggravates frustration levels. Chronic understimulation leads to deprivational stress. This is caused by things such as loneliness and boredom.

Bioecological concerns include biological rhythms, noise, nutrition, heat and cold. Biological rhythms are the natural fluctuations in body processes that require, for example, sleeping a certain number of hours each night in order to feel refreshed and to perform at a nominal level. Disruption in biological rhythms, including shift work, travel between time zones (leading to jet lag), and artificial light at night, stresses the bioecological system. Stress caused by noise is ever-more-prevalent in both rural and urban settings, with the advent of modern technologies such as locomotives, automobiles, airplanes, amplified music, heavy equipment, etc. Poor nutrition and excessive consumption of drugs stress the body and lead to illness. Exposure to extreme heat or cold without adequate precautions creates stress and, in extreme situations, can lead to death. Another bioecological stressor is caused by environmental pollutants particularly in the air. According to Miller (1996) "feeling ill from odors is a symptom reported by approximately one-third of the population." This syndrome of chemical sensitivity is usually called "Multiple Chemical Sensitivity" or "MCS." It is thought to be caused by exposure to pesticides, solvents, or air contaminants in a sick building (for review see Brod, 1996).

Personality is reflected in our thoughts, behaviors, and reactions. Girdano et al., (1990) outlined four main facets of personality stress: self-concept; type "A" behavior; chronic anxiety; and the need for control. Self-concept is how one perceives oneself. Low self-esteem is linked with serious physical and mental disease. People who consistently exhibit "type A behavior" (impatience, anger, hostility, cynicism) tend to over-tax their cardiovascular systems. Chronic anxiety is a self-perpetuating loop in which the individual experiences stress that persists or increases even after the stressor has disappeared. The need for control is a potential stressor if individuals feel that they have lost control.

The police profession is similar to the military profession in that they are a specific group of society responsible for guarding the safety of people and property. In many countries, the military and the police are indistinguishable. Also, like military professionals, police appear to be highly stressed. Police officers rank high on the list of occupations that are the most stressful, according to The American Institute of Stress ("Stressed out," 1992). "Police officers, who are subject to extraordinary stress, present a paradigm for the study and treatment of stress in other occupations" (Smith, 1992, p. 3138). Stress impairs law enforcement officers' ability to perform their duties. This can impact the operation of the whole department, adding to the stress of other members. Stress may be related to the incidence of divorce, alcoholism and suicide that run abnormally high among police officers across the United States (Kleinfield & James, 1994, p.1). Large police departments located on the east and west coasts of the United States have been studied and have received most of the attention from the press. However, police stress may not be just a big city problem. Baugrud and Robinson (1995) found that the officers in small- and medium-sized departments in southeast Wisconsin were also concerned about their high stress levels.

Police stress does not necessarily originate from intense and traumatic critical incidents. While it is true that, according to Storch and Panzarella (1996), police officers generally scored low on the Spielberger, Jacobs, Russell and Crane (1983) State Trait Anxiety Inventory, these officers identified primarily administrative matters and relationships with nonpolice as stressors. "Officers who focused on the job's compensations experienced less stress than those who relished the excitement of the job, crime fighting, or people-centered policing. More stress was experienced by officers who were inclined to think more frequently about the possibility of being injured and by officers adapting to changes in their work or family" (Storch & Panzarella, 1996).

However, the dangers and rigors of police work that lead to critical incidents should not be overlooked. "Every year, hundreds of officers experience intense, traumatic events that can have serious long-term consequences for them, their families, and their departments" (Kureczka, 1996, p. 10). According to an article in The Police Chief (Pierson, 1989, February) critical incident stress affects up to 87 percent of all emergency service workers at least once in their careers. Critical incident stress can not be easily defined because what affects one officer may not affect another. Also, stress from one incident can be compounded by other factors. For instance, if an officer involved in a gunfight becomes wounded or the suspect that was shot dies, the incident becomes a media event. These critical incidents may each be critical stressors for the officer. However, it is estimated that only 4 to 10 percent of individuals experiencing a critical incident develop full-fledged post-traumatic stress disorder (Blak, 1991).

E. Stress and Alexithymia

In studying stress by means of self-report measures one must be aware that certain behavioral or personality "traits" can have a substantial effect on how a person answers test questions. Perhaps the most significant of such conditions is alexithymia.

Sifneos (1972; 1973) devised the term "alexithymic" to describe a pattern of behavior observed in patients with psychosomatic disorders (Sifneos, 1973; Nemiah & Sifneos, 1970). The alexithymia construct referred to the difficulties individuals had experiencing and expressing their feelings. Alexithymic individuals also lacked the ability to create fantasies related to feeling. Their thought content was characterized by a "preoccupation with the details of objects and events in their external environment. Emotionally and cognitively speaking, they... [appear] to have little or no private personal internal life" ("Alexithymia," 1996, p. 217).

According to Lane, et al. (1996) alexithymia was different from denial and repression. In the latter, well differentiated emotions were held back from conscious awareness by conscious or unconscious processes. Repression in fact increased affective expression. On the other hand, alexithymia was the limited and undifferentiated emotional experience associated with an impairment in capacity to recognize emotions. Alexithymics lacked affective expression. Martin and Pihl (1986, p. 66) found "that the presence of alexithymic characteristics is independent of repression, trait anxiety, and social desirability." Also, the high alexithymics appeared to dissociate "between subjective and physiological stress responses." It was proposed that "[t]he presence of the dissociation makes it difficult for the [alexithymic] individual to identify situations as stressful" (p. 75).

A recent study by Lane, et al. (1996, p. 203) suggested that alexithymic individuals had "impaired verbal and nonverbal recognition of emotion stimuli and that the hallmark of alexithymia, a difficulty in putting emotion into words, may be a marker of a more general impairment in the capacity for emotion information processing." This finding appeared to be unaffected by gender, age and socioeconomic class. The alexithymic concept appeared to identify similar sets of individuals cross-culturally, having been tested on populations in Finland (Kauhanen, Julkunen & Salonen, 1992), India (Pandey, Mandal, Taylor, & Parker, 1996), and Germany (Parker, Bagby, Taylor, Endler & Schmitz, 1993) in addition to the USA and Canada (Parker, et al., 1993; Kauhanen, Julkunen & Salonen, 1992; Salminen, Saarijävi, Aäirelä & Tamminen, 1994).

It has been proposed that alexithymia may be linked to the development of stress-related illness (Martin & Pihl, 1985). According to Taylor (1994, p. 61) "alexithymia appears to be a personality trait that is probably normally distributed in the general population; a high level of alexithymia is considered a personality risk factor for a variety of medical and psychiatric disorders."

F. The Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Programs

The Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs have been more widely researched than any other meditation programs. More than 35 years of research conducted in 33 countries has confirmed the benefits of its practice and implementation. Over 500 research studies conducted at 218 independent research institutions and leading universities such as Harvard, Oxford, Stanford, McGill and York have found positive effects. Studies that documented these changes in intelligence, psychological well-being and health have been published in more than 100 scientific journals. Five volumes (a sixth volume is currently in press) of these studies and other research have been compiled and published (Orme-Johnson et al., 1977; Chalmers et al., 1989a; Chalmers et al., 1989b; Chalmers et al., 1991; Wallace et al., 1993).

Meta-analyses of much of this scientific research indicates that a stress-free mode of functioning became habitual through the practice of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs (Dillbeck & Orme-Johnson, 1987; Eppley et al., 1989; Alexander et al., 1991). Meta-analysis has been considered the preferred statistical tool for drawing acceptable conclusions from large, diverse bodies of research (Glass, 1977; Glass, McGraw, & Smith 1981; Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). It was used to systematically combine the results of many studies. These meta-analyses and five volumes of research documented numerous beneficial effects on physiological, psychological, sociological and ecological aspects of life.

Dr. Kenneth Chandler (1987), formerly of Maharishi University of Management, has summarized the broad categories of research conducted on the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs as follows:

1. The Physiological Level

Since the early days of his teaching over thirty years ago, Maharishi has held that as the mind fathoms the finer field of thinking during the Transcendental Meditation technique, the metabolic activity is simultaneously reduced. This practice thereby establishes the nervous system in degrees of ever-increasing peace. Eventually, when the entire nervous system settles down into a completely "coherent" and peaceful state, it reflects the unified field of natural law (Maharishi, 1966a).

The peaceful state that Maharishi referred to has been documented physiologically as the state of deep rest experienced during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. This state of restful alertness in the nervous system appeared uniquely different from the sleeping state (Jevning, Wallace & Biedebach, 1992; Travis & Wallace, 1997; Mason et al., 1997). Evidence indicated it resulted in the reduction of stress in the body, thereby creating a state of well-being in the practitioner. Three pioneering studies on metabolic changes in the body first documented this deep state of rest during practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique (Wallace, 1970; Wallace, Benson, Wilson, 1971; Wallace & Benson, 1972). These studies showed indications of a decreased metabolic rate (decreased oxygen consumption and unchanged respiratory quotient); decreased carbon dioxide elimination; decreased arterial lactate level; decreased heart rate; decreased minute ventilation; increased basal skin resistance; reduced biological index of stress; increased regularity and global intensity of EEG alpha activity; and an increased intensity of EEG alpha activity in the frontal and central regions of the brain.

In a later study by Jevning, Wilson, Van Der Laan and Levine (1977), indicators of reduced stress in the nervous system (decreased cortisol) were detected during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. There have been recent confirmations of lasting changes in cortisol and other hormones outside the technique caused by regular practice (MacLean et al., 1997). Also, decreased cortisol was measured afterwards in both the long-term meditators and the restudied controls who had just learned the TM program (Jevning, Wilson & Davidson, 1978).

An earlier study by Banquet (1973) involving a spectral analysis of the EEG during Transcendental Meditation revealed electromyographic evidence of increased muscle relaxation. Corey (1973) discovered increased airway conductance and increased ease of breathing in his study. Later, Hebert (1976) found periodic breath suspension. Both of these findings are correlates of deep rest. Because the study by Corey (1973) indicated a lower basal metabolic rate, it also supported the maintenance of a relaxed style of functioning outside of meditation.

Jevning, Wilson and Smith (1975) investigated plasma amino acids during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. A comparison was made with early sleep (2200-0200 hrs.). This comparison showed an increase of plasma phenylalanine levels in the long-term practitioners of the technique while they were practicing it. This increase contrasted with the results of the plasma amino acid measurements that were taken during early sleep. During early sleep there appeared to be a decline in total serum amino acids and also a decline in specific amino acids such as tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine (Feigin et al., 1968 and Wurtman et al., 1968). Therefore, the phenylalanine increase during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique further supported existence of a different physiology from sleep.

The research in general was interpreted to indicate that the Transcendental Meditation technique created a more efficient physiological functioning. For instance, a meta-analysis of 31 physiological studies (Dillbeck & Orme-Johnson, 1987), which compared Transcendental Meditation to eyes-closed rest, found significantly lower baseline levels of spontaneous skin resistance responses, respiration rate, heart rate, and plasma lactate prior to meditation in experienced practitioners than to comparison subjects prior to resting. These measures decreased even further during the TM practice session, significantly more than resting for the appropriate non-meditating controls. This finding suggested that the Transcendental Meditation technique cultured a state of physiological efficiency, stability, and restfulness. Another consideration was that because the TM subjects initially had lower levels of respiration rate, plasma lactate levels, spontaneous skin resistance levels and heart rate, the results could not be attributed to regression towards the mean. The decreased physiological indices of stress through the TM program appeared to be cumulative, giving rise to the initially deeper level of relaxation measured in the TM subjects (see also MacLean et al., 1997). Other types of meditation techniques were not included in this study. For this reason, the results of this meta-analysis can not be generalized to these other techniques.

2. The Psychological Level

A state of inner peace may be reflected on the psychological level by enhanced self-concept or perception of self-worth (Nystul & Garde, 1977); decreased anxiety (Dillbeck, 1977; Nystul & Garde, 1977); increased ego strength (Throll & Throll, 1977); relief from insomnia and improvements in sleeping and dreaming habits (Miskiman, 1972; Bloomfield, 1975); decreased time to fall asleep (Miskiman, 1975); increased emotional stability (Penner, Zingle, Dyck & Truch, 1974; Fehr, 1974; and Bloomfield, 1975). In a study conducted on emotional stability (Penner et al., 1974) the subjects attended an in-depth Transcendental Meditation course in residence. These subjects were posttested for numerous changes on the subscales of the Omnibus Personality Inventory. When compared with the normative samples, the responses on the subscales of the same personality test showed reduced anxiety in the TM group. The results also showed less social alienation, greater personal integration and less impulsiveness.

The relief from anxiety could result in more effective overall functioning simply because it affects all areas of life. Research by Tjoa (1975) in the Netherlands seemed to confirm this, because decrease in anxiety was correlated with improved learning capacity. In this study, the subjects who regularly practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique showed significant decreases in neuroticism and somatic neurotic instability, along with increases of nonverbal fluid intelligence (the ability to learn to adapt effectively to new situations and to perceive complex relationships). This was a significant finding because nonverbal fluid intelligence permitted one to behave with minimal anxiety in a wide variety of situations. Also, after adolescence this type of intelligence has not generally been seen to improve. A study conducted in the classroom by Schecter (1975) which psychologically evaluated the effect of the TM technique may add further credence to Tjoa's research. The findings revealed not only a decrease in anxiety but also increases in autonomy and independence, innovation, self-esteem and tolerance, as well as the ability to deal with abstract and complex situations.

Eppley, Abrams, and Shear (1989) conducted a statistical meta-analysis of all available studies (146 outcomes) on trait anxiety (i.e., chronic stress). This study found that the Transcendental Meditation program produced approximately twice the reduction of trait anxiety as other meditation and relaxation techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation, and as other kinds of meditation that were specifically designed to imitate the Transcendental Meditation program. This meta-analysis also compared studies conducted by "pro-TM" researchers with studies done by researchers "with negative or neutral attitudes towards TM." The Transcendental Meditation technique was found to be equally effective in both cases. No significant effect of experimenter bias was detected. Also, the positive effects found in the studies conducted on the Transcendental Meditation program could not be attributed to subject expectation, atmospheric effects, or quality of research design. The duration of study, number of follow-up hours of instruction and dropout rate were statistically controlled. The samples were matched for type of population as well.

The Eppley et al. (1989) meta-analysis also found that the effect sizes for the Transcendental Meditation technique were normally distributed. This means that if there were a systematic bias to suppress studies with weak results the distribution would have been significantly skewed, which was not the case. Therefore, this meta-analysis provides empirical evidence to refute critics such as the authors of the National Research Council's Report on Meditation (Druckman & Bjork, 1991; 1994) which characterized all researchers who are practitioners of meditation as subjectively-biased "devotees" (p. 127).

In a meta-analysis of 198 studies, Alexander, Robinson and Rainforth (1994) found that Transcendental Meditation was one of the most effective means to reduce drug, alcohol and cigarette abuse. Another meta-analysis of 51 studies conducted by Ferguson (1981) at the University of Colorado comparing the Transcendental Meditation program to other forms of meditation on psychological measures also found a larger effect size for the TM program. This result was maintained in those studies with only the strongest experimental design and of highest validity.

Although individual experiences are subjective and variable, the objective results of the daily practice of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs have been documented by many of the above and other scientific experiments. For instance, holistic growth in the individual has been measured through psychophysiological means such as increased neurophysiological integration. This integrated growth has been verified by tests measuring EEG coherence, perceptual-motor ability, intelligence, creativity, field independence, and personality (Orme-Johnson & Farrow, 1977).

3. The Behavioral Level

The growth toward a more ideal personality and better social behavior can be seen as a practical indicator of more harmony between individuals. Many sociological studies on the benefits of the Transcendental Meditation technique have reflected such behavior. This research, taken together, indicates that practice of the TM technique enhances the capacity of the meditator to relate harmoniously with others and to form deep and lasting relationships. For example, one study conducted on students at Maharishi International University*(MIU), all of whom practice the technique, utilized Shostrom's Personality Inventory. This test measures values and behavior important in the development of self-actualization. In this study Orme-Johnson and Duck (1974) found that MIU students had an increased ability to see humanity as essentially good, as well as increased capacity for intimate contact and warm interpersonal relationships. These MIU subjects were compared to "a group of nonmeditating college students and with that of a group of people judged to be relatively self-actualized" (p. 471).

[* In 1995 Maharishi International University (MIU) was renamed to Maharishi University of Management (M.U.M.). All further citations will use the current name except in "APPENDIX A" AND THE "REFERENCES section.]

In another example study, the Freiburger Personality Inventory was given to forty-nine practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation technique (Fehr, Nerstheimer, & Törber, 1972). The scores differed significantly in ten out of the twelve scales when compared with a normative comparison group. These scores were all in the direction of healthier psychological and sociological functioning in the practitioners of the TM program. Selected findings were: improved self-assuredness and good humor, greater sociability (friendliness and liveliness), less tendency to dominate (great respectfulness), less inhibition (greater naturalness and spontaneity), and improved self-reliance (more balanced mood, greater vigor, more effectiveness).

Later research also showed decreased social introversion and increased friendliness (Fehr, 1974), increased tolerance (Shecter, 1975) and increased trust (Berg & Mulder, 1976). The study conducted by Schilling (1974), which measured the effect of regular practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique on behavior and personality, indicated that subjects practicing the technique not only reduced their intake of drugs, but also displayed an increased sensitivity to the feelings of others. These subjects also exhibited a more sympathetic, forgiving and agreeable nature, with increased good naturedness, friendliness and loyalty. Other research has revealed improvements in the quality of attitudes toward work and productivity (Frew, 1974; Friend, 1975; Alexander et al., 1993) after beginning and regularly practicing the TM program.

A statistical meta-analysis of all available studies on self-actualization (42 independent outcomes) showed that the Transcendental Meditation program increased self-actualization more than other meditation or relaxation techniques, although it was necessary to group different techniques together to get sufficient data for comparison (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991). This study utilized the Personality Orientation Inventory (POI) as the primary indicator of overall self-actualization. It was found that the effect of the Transcendental Meditation technique was approximately three times as large as those produced by other forms of meditation or relaxation. The strength of experimental design as well as duration of intervention were controlled. Also, the meta-analysis revealed that for the TM program, the longer the treatment intervention, the larger the effect size. The other treatments were not found to exhibit this characteristic.

4. Individual Benefits of Particular Interest to Today's Warriors

The TM program has been adopted to reduce stress in military, governmental and other institutional settings (Haratani & Henmi, 1990a; 1990b; Orme-Johnson, 1987; Ottoson, 1977; Suurküla, 1977; Herron, Hillis, Mandarino, Orme-Johnson & Walton 1996). For example, over 26,000 Brazilian military police officers learned the TM technique between 1987 and 1988. Significant improvements in discipline and health were documented. In a study involving 6,300 military police officers and 100 cadets, disciplinary measures for officers decreased 69% and for cadets decreased 35% after learning the TM program (Military Police Center for Education and Training, 1988; Schuler, 1989). Doctors' visits decreased 26% for officers and 55% for cadets, and community relations improved. For instance, the number of positive reports received by the military police department from the citizens of Salvador, Brazil increased 1,206% after officers were instructed in the TM program. A study conducted on 289 cadets at the Police Academy of Piauí, Brazil, showed significant improvements in behavior, attitude, health, and academic performance after learning the TM technique (Government of State of Piauí, 1987).

In a more direct test of the effects of the program on performance, Sandahl (1978), of the National Defense Research Institute in Karlstad, Sweden, conducted a study on 15 applicants who were rejected for pilot training with the Royal Swedish Air Force (RSAF). The potential pilots were rejected by the RSAF drafting committee because of inadequate performance on the Defense Mechanism Test (DMT) but were considered otherwise suitable. Subsequently, eight of the applicants practiced the TM program for 18 months and showed a significant improvement in DMT scores compared to a non-meditating control group. Sandahl proposed that the reduced neuroticism resulting from regular practice of the program reflected a decrease in hidden mental turbulence, leading to better performance.

Tests on other stress-related problems have been equally promising. For instance, American Vietnam war veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder were randomly assigned either the TM technique or psychotherapy (Brooks & Scarano, 1985). The veterans who practiced the technique showed significant improvement on eight measures: alcohol problems, emotional numbness, insomnia, anxiety, post-Vietnam Stress disorder, family problems, depression, and employment record. The veterans who participated in psychotherapy did not show significant improvement. The practitioners of the TM technique also showed a more rapid physiological recovery from a stressful stimulus, as gauged by habituation of the skin resistance response. Also, over 24 studies have shown that the TM program fostered significant reductions in substance abuse, such as tobacco, alcohol, and all types of illegal and prescribed drugs (see for review, Gelderloos, Walton, Orme-Johnson & Alexander, 1991; Alexander, Robinson, & Rainforth, 1994).

Aside from these studies of stress-related change, there are other studies that documented benefits of the TM program which could give military personnel the edge in battle. For example, a study by Reddy, Bai, and Rao (1974) showed that speed, agility, reactions, coordination, endurance, and perception improved after learning the TM program. In another study, three months of practicing the TM technique resulted in subjects showing significantly increased field independence (i.e., increased ability to focus, increased stability of spatial orientation, broader comprehension, increased resistance to distraction) compared to controls (Pelletier, 1974; 1977). Other research has measured a greater ability to assimilate and structure experience (Shecter, 1977; Tjoa, 1975), improved memory and learning ability (Dillbeck, 1982; Miskiman, 1977), increased creativity (Travis, 1979; Shecter, 1977), and greater autonomic stability (Orme-Johnson, 1973; Brooks & Scarano, 1985). Other effects include enhanced neurological efficiency (Wallace, Mills, Orme-Johnson, Dillbeck & Jacobe, 1983), faster choice reaction time (Cranson, Orme-Johnson, Dillbeck, Jones, Alexander & Gackenbach, 1991), improved self-confidence (Fehr, Nerstheimer, & Törber, 1972), increased self-reliance (Turnbull & Norris, 1982), and greater inner control (Nidich, Seeman, & Dreskin, 1973). Holistic growth has been indicated by psychophysiological means such as increases in global EEG coherence (Orme-Johnson & Haynes, 1981), and through psychological tests of intelligence (Dillbeck, Assimakis, Raimondi, Orme-Johnson, & Rowe, 1986), moral reasoning (Nidich, Ryncarz, Abrams, Orme-Johnson, & Wallace, 1983) and personality (Nidich, Seeman, & Dreskin, 1973).

5. Improvements in Health and Reduction in Health Care Costs

The previously mentioned studies are supported by many other findings of health benefits in the civilian sector. For example, a retrospective study of five years of health insurance statistics by Orme-Johnson (1987) suggested major improvements in health for 2,000 practitioners of the TM program. Persons practicing the technique used 50% fewer inpatient and outpatient medical services as compared to normative data or with control subjects with similar demographics. Significant differences were found for all disease categories.

Another retrospective study, conducted by Herron, Hillis et al. (1996) in the province of Quebec, Canada found results similar to those of Orme-Johnson (1987). Since the Quebec government pays all medical expenses of its citizens, and keeps records of the physicians' fees incurred by each individual, the study investigated whether the TM technique reduced government payments to physicians. During the three years before learning the technique, the adjusted payment costs to physicians for the 677 subjects practicing the TM program did not change significantly. After practicing the program, the subjects' adjusted expenses declined significantly, ranging from 5%